Reduce Radiation Exposure

Introduction to reduce radiation exposure

The radiation dose limits indicate the maximum occupational dose (OD) allowed for radiation workers in a year. One should make considerable efforts to adopt strict protective measures for working with radiations in order to reduce the radiation exposure to as low as reasonably achievable ( ALARA). To minimize the radiation exposure must be critically evaluated and adopted concept, techniques, equipment and procedures. Action level 1 is when a radiation worker receives > 5 mSv per quarter ( 10 % of OD per year) and Action level 2 is when a radiation worker receives > 15 mSv ( 30% of OD per year ). If these limits are exceeded, corrective actions must be taken by the RSO or higher limit must be justified by the particular situation. Let us see the action to be taken to reduce radiation exposure


Remedial action to reduce radiation exposure

Natural background is excluded from the above limits and the circumstances in which natural background itself or more especially, natural radiation sources enhanced locally by man's operations for selected purposes, can give rise to annual exposures above the level of 1mSv.

Remedial action levels involve a balance of risk and many other socio-economic factors. In general, the aim of setting a remedial action level is to reduce the greatest risks from a given type of radiation sources. It is clear that once a remedial action level is established for given circumtances, action is recommended when a level above it is found. Actions to reduce exposure should not be limited by or to the remedial action. Several criteria relevant to the low level risk or triviality of risk were considered in which perspective that tend to minimize subjective aspects of judgement. Smallness of risk was considered in relation to :

magnitude of dose,

difficulty in detection and measurement of dose and health effects,

natural risk for the same health effects,

perception of and behavioral response to risk levels.

estimated risk for the mean and variance of natural background radiation exposure levels.

An annual limit of 1 mSv effective dose for continuous exposure  and an annual limit of 5 mSv effective dose for infrequent exposure.

Remedial action levels for the public of 5 mSv annual average effective dose for exposure from natural sources excluding radon and an annual average of 7 x 10 ^ -3 Jh m^ -3 for total exposure to radon and its decay products.

 Another important change is the introduction of the radiation weighing factor which range from 1 for all photon energies up to 20 for 1 MeV neutrons and alpha particles. Thus these are the measures taken to reduce radiation exposure

Types of Pollutants Air Quality

Introduction to types of pollutants air quality
Pollution is the addition of any such constituents to air, water or land, which adversely alter the natural quality of environment. The constituent thus added is called pollutant.  Check this awesome  Three Properties of Ionic Compounds i recently used.


Types of pollutants sir quality


Pollutants can be categorized in two ways:

    According to source – Based on the source the pollutants are of two types:
a) Wastes from the industries, etc., as well as wastes from human and animal bodies.

b) Deliberate additions in the environment in the form of application such as pesticides and insecticides on cultivated plants, stored grains etc.

   Based on the degradability the pollutants are of two kinds:
a) Biodegradable pollutants are such substances that can be broken down by organisms and dispersed.

b) Non – biodegradable pollutants are those that are virtually indestructible. For example DDT and various detergents move up in the food chain (producer to primary consumer to secondary consumer and so on) becoming more and more concentrated at each trophic level

 Certain substances are totally non-biodegradable, for example aluminum, glass and plastic are not acted upon by any organism and if felt in environment they remain as junk for all the time.  

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Pollutants and pollution


These types of pollutants leads to various types of pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, thermal pollution and noise pollution.

Air pollution – The pollutant responsible for this type of pollution are of two types namely:

Particulate air pollutants – consists of unburnt particles of coal, coke etc.
Gaseous air pollutants – consists of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide, ammonia etc.
Water pollution – the pollutants responsible for this type of pollution are:

Organic pollutants – dissolved in water reduces aquatic life
Poisonous insecticides – this primarily consists of DDT, and some other industrial wastes.
Sewage – untreated sewage causes cholera, typhoid etc.
Oil from washings of automobiles and oil spilling.
Similar types of pollutants contribute to soil, thermal and noise pollution as well.

What are State Functions

Introduction to what are state functions

State function is a thermodynamic term in thermodynamics.  Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with the study of interconversion of heat with other forms of energy during physical and chemical processes.  In order to understand thermodynamics, the knowledge of the following terms is essential.  Those are system, surroundings and Boundary. Please express your views of this topic Thermodynamics Problems by commenting on blog.

System: A system is a specified portion of the universe which is under thermodynamic study and which is separated from the rest of the universe with a definite boundary.

Surroundings: The surroundings is the portion of the universe excluding the system and capable of exchanging matter and energy with the system.

Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from the surroundings is called boundary.


State of a System:


The state of a system is the condition of the system expressed by giving definite values for its properties such as temperature, pressure, volume, enthalpy, Entropy, gibbs free energy etc. Looking out for more help on Formation of Ionic Compounds in chemistry by visiting listed websites.


State function:


The variables like temperature, pressure, volume, enthalpy, Entropy, gibbs free energy  etc which define the state of a system are called state functions or thermodynamic variables.

When the state of a system changes, the values of the state functions also change.  If any two state functions like pressure and temperature are known, the value of the third state function, volume is fixed automatically.  The two state functions like pressure and temperature are called independent state functions while volume is the dependent state function.

The values of state functions depend only on the state of the system and not upon the way in which the state is reached.

Work and heat are not state functions.( W and q)

Standard state: The state of a system at 298K and 101.3 kPa pressure is known as standard state of the system.

Enthalpy: It is the one of the state function which is defined as the total heat content of a system.  It is measured as the sum of its internal energy and the product of pressure and volume.  It is represented as H.

H=U+ (PV)

Where U is the internal energy, P is the pressure and V is the volume of the system.

Entropy: It is a measure of disorder or randomness of a system.  Substance in a highly disorded state have high values of entropy.  When the disorder increases, the value of entropy also increases.  Entropy is represented by S.

Gibbs free energy:  Gibbs energy is the capacity of a system to do non-mechanical work.  It is represented by G.

G=H-TS

Where H is Enthalpy, T is temperature and S is Entropy of the system.

Troposphere Characteristics

Introduction to troposphere characteristics :
The atmosphere has a multi-layered structure consisting of following basic layers. Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere, and Exosphere.


Troposphere characteristics : Troposphere


The word troposphere derived from the Greek word tropo and it means turbulence or mixing. This is the lower most layer of the atmosphere and is known as troposphere and is the most important layer because almost all the weather events ( e.g fog, cloud, due, frost, hailstorm, storms, cloud-thunder, lightening etc) occur in this layer. Thus the troposphere is utmost significance for all life-forms including man because these are concentrated in the lowermost portion of the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with increasing height at the average rate of 6.50 C per 1000m(1 kilometer) Which is called as normal lapse rate. The height of troposphere changes from equator towards the poles (decreases) and from one season of a year to the other season(increases during summer while decreases during winter). The average height of the troposphere is about 16km over the equator and 6km over the poles. The upper limits of the troposphere is called as TROPOPAUSE.


Troposphere characteristics


Most of the weather phenomena take place in this layer. The troposphere contain almost all the water vapour and most of the dust.

This layer is subjected to intense mixing due both horizontal and vertical mixing.

Temperature decreases with height at an average rate of 10C per 167m of height above sea level. This is called the normal lapse rate.

The troposphere extends up to a height of about 18km at the equator and declines gradually to a height of 8km at the poles.

The upper limit of the troposphere is called the tropopause. The temperature stops decreasing in it. It may be as low as -580C.

All weather changes occur in the troposphere. Since it contains most of the water vapour, clouds forms in this layer.

Refractive Index Viscosity

Introduction to refractive index and viscosity:

Refractive index and viscosity are fundamental physical properties of a substance, which helps to identify a particular substance to confirm its purity or to measure its concentration.Is this topic Boron Family Name hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.


About refractive index and viscosity:


Refractive Index

Light waves travel from one medium to another at different speeds. The refraction index helps in defining light propagation speed, bending angle and the quantity of radiation transmitted and reflected by a material. Refraction index can be measured using the formula n=c/ vp and which can be defined as the ratio of the speed, c to the phase speed, vp, of the wave in the medium.

Refractive index measurement can be done using a refractometer to measure the power of not only solids like gemstones, glass, lenses and prisms but also the concentration of liquids and gases.

Viscosity

A fluid's viscosity can be found when the layers moving at different velocities in a fluid are under stress that moves against the applied force.  This resistance of the fluid, which is being deformed with stress, is called viscosity. A substance can be characterized based on the friction between the fluid layers i.e. if a substance is thick then it has high viscosity.

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Classification of viscosity in fluids:



Viscosity in fluids can be classified as:

The fluids such as gases and water that have a constant viscosity are called Newtonian type.
The substances whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear come under the shear thickening type.
The substances whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear come under the shear thinning type.
Some materials when shaken or agitated that become less viscous are termed under the thixotropic type.
Rheopectic materials are the ones, which tend to become more viscous when shaken or agitated.
When a fluid tends to become a viscoelastic solid under magnetic field thus increasing its viscosity can be termed as magnetorheological fluid.
The viscosity of substances can be measured using viscometers and rheometers using their respective coefficients, which are classified into dynamic, or absolute, kinetic, shear, volume and extensional viscosity.

Refractive index and viscosity are the two important physical properties that help in judging and studying a substance.

Prepare Nutrient Agar

Introduction to prepare of nutrient agar:

Nutrient agar is one of the medium for bacteria. Also this is very complex medium since it has the unknown ingredients. Nutrient agar prepare by three types of substances. They are, Beef, Pep-tone and the agar substance present in water. These substances are very much important for the preparation of nutrient agar. There are many materials needed for the preparation for the nutrient agar. We can also prepare agar at the temperature of 450C.Is this topic Hs Chemical Name hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.


Materials needed to prepare of nutrient agar


To prepare the nutrient agar, the following materials are needed.

1. Electronic equipment

2. Weigh boats substance

3. Wire-gauze asbestos

4. Pipette of 10ml

5. Ph meter buffers

6. Cylinder of 250 ml

7. Three substances

8. Tubes

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Prepare nutrient agar


Beef is prepared by the dehydrated format. The final product after extracting beef is the form of paste.
Pep-tone is one of the milk proteins. It is also prepared by the dehydrated format. The final product after extracting pep-tone is the form of powder.
The above two mixtures has the amino acids solution and the peptides.
Agar solution is obtained from the purification of red algae. Then the nutrient agar is added to the medium in the microbiology.
The solution is the form of solidification agent. There is no value for nutrient is present in the agar.
Agar solution will be dissolved in the boiling point and this solution solidifies at the temperature of 450C.
After preparing these things, First step is to weigh the beef extract and then placing this in a flask.
Next step is to weigh the pep-tone and then add this into the flask.
Then amount of distilled water is added to the mixture of gar and pep-tone. Then we have to check the pH value.
By using the Bunsen burner, we have to heat the mixture until the agar dissolve.
Till the agar is warm means add some of water into the flask and then heat again.

Motion of Molecules in a Solid

Introduction to Motion of Molecules


The first person who actually gives the theory of motion of molecules was Louis Bachelier, a French mathematician who proposed a model showing the motion of molecules in 1900. However, Robert Brown will be credited for the discovery of Motion of molecules because he was the first one to introduce the motion of molecule in his theory of Brownian motion. Motion of molecules is generally related to the movement of molecules in compounds. In addition, this movement or motion differs in different compounds.

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About Motion of Molecules in a Solid


As per the postulated given by the scientists it has been said that all molecules are in constant motion. Movement and motion of molecules differ in solids, liquids, gases and plasma. Molecules of a liquid have more degree of freedom to move than solid. Even gases have the highest degree of freedom for the molecules to move more than both solids and gases. Motion of molecules is related with energy. The more energy (in any form like kinetic, potential or heat) will be provided to them the more fast they will move.

In solids the spaces between the molecules is very less as compared to the rest of the phases. Due to highest intermolecular attraction between the atoms and molecules the motion inside a molecules is limited i.e. the molecule sin a solid can only vibrate on their positions instead of moving.

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Important facts about the motion of molecules in a solid


Some important facts related to the motion of molecule sin solids are as follows:

The molecules in solids are very closely packed, due to which the motion of molecules in solids is restricted.
The intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules in solids is very strong, due to which molecule tends to show no or very little motion and this is the reason why solids have high melting and boiling points.
Molecules inside the solids vibrate on the mean positions only.
Due to very less spacing and motion between the molecules in a solid, they cannot be compressed.
When solids are heated the molecules gained kinetic energy and vibrate more, this result in the increase of intermolecular distance between the molecules and the solid expands.

Conclusion


The motion of molecules in very important to understand the chemical changes occurring in the compounds. All scientists believe that all molecules are in motion and if there is any change occurring in their motion then the compound will undergo some chemical change.